類比訊號轉數位訊號：
[Analog Signal]
↓
[Anti-Aliasing Filter] (低通濾波器，如 Bessel, Butterworth)
↓
[Sampling] (44.1kHz for audio, 8kHz PCM voice, etc.)
↓
[Quantization] (8-bit, 16-bit uniform/non-uniform)
↓
[Encoding] (PCM, ADPCM)
↓
[Digital Data] (bit stream)
發射端
Source Coding] (Huffman, LZW, JPEG, MP3, H.264)
↓
[Channel Coding] (Hamming, Convolutional, Turbo, LDPC)
↓
[Modulation] (BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM, FSK)
↓
[Digital-to-Analog Conversion] (DAC, e.g. 14-bit DAC)
↓
[Upconversion to RF/IF] (Mixer + LO, e.g. 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz)
↓
[Wireless Channel] (AWGN, Rayleigh Fading, Rician Fading, Multipath)
接收端
[Downconversion to Baseband] (Mixer + LO, RF → IF → Baseband)
↓
[Analog-to-Digital Conversion] (ADC, e.g. 12-bit, 100 MSPS)
↓
[Demodulation] (BPSK, QPSK, QAM demodulator with LLR output)
↓
[Channel Decoding] (Viterbi for convolutional, belief propagation for LDPC)
↓
[Source Decoding] (Inverse Huffman, inverse JPEG/MP3/H.264)
↓
[Digital Data]
接收數位轉類比
[Decoding] (PCM decoding)
↓
[D/A Conversion] (e.g. audio DAC, video DAC)
↓
[Reconstruction Filter] (Low-pass filter)
↓
[Analog Output Signal] (e.g. speaker, display, sensor actuator)